Female Bounding Colour Purple Essay

Do you agree with the view that the British actions at Amritsar were justified in the aftermath of world war one The British actions at Amritsar were justified in the aftermath of world war one to an extent. The war seemed to boost the self esteem on Indians and unite them, suggesting threat against the raj, however the view in source 10 shows that there was no proof of a conspiracy, source 11 agrees with this but also shows why dyer might have acted in this way. Source 12 agrees with the fact that the actions were justified in the aftermath of world war one. The aftermath of world war one increased the self esteem if Indian as they were fighting alongside British soldiers, it also strengthened the arguments of the Indian politicians that India should be given a greater say in Indian affairs, this suggests that Indian nationalism was starting to progress. Muslims and Hindus had also joined together, forming the Lucknow pact, which shows that the Indians were becoming more powerful as they were joining together but the day of the massacre in Amritsar only included mostly Sikh people who were gathered to celebrate their religious festival showing that the attacks weren’t necessary. local officials also went on strike as a result of the aftermath of the war, suggesting that support for the raj was crumbling, showing that maybe the action of the British at Amritsar were due to the fear of Indian nationalism and the falling support for the raj. However source 10 clearly says that â€Å"it is not proven that any conspiracy had been formed† and that Dyer had acted â€Å"beyond the necessity of the case† showing that his action was not necessary and fair as there was no proof and evidence at the scene at jailaiwad bagh to justify that the actions of the British. Source 11 is a letter by Dyer saying that if he had hesitated it would have â€Å"induce attack† showing that the British might of felt that the Indians had gained power after world war one so they might attack . The source also suggests that there was no proof that there was going to be an attack, but dyer assumed it and therefore has fired without warning, this supports source 10 which says that it wasn’t proven that there was a â€Å"conspiracy†, showing that dyers actions were not necessary. However after world war one hartal were being organised to protest against the Rowlett acts, the two men who had started these hartals were arrested by the authorities, this lead to riots in Amritsar. The riots soon turned into an anti European attack, European women and children were beaten. Therefore source 11 could suggest that the reason Dyer fired without warning at the â€Å"dense crowd† was due to his fear of an attack as there were meetings being held in jalilawad bagh discussing the Rowlett acts, therefore dyer had presumed that a similar result to the Amritsar riots was bound to happen. The result of the riots at Amritsar support source 12, which is a letter by the European women thanking dyer for his actions which â€Å"saved the Punjab and thereby preserved the honour and lives of hundreds of women and children† this show that the women has felt threatened by what had happened at the riots which they also presumed would of happened at jailiawa bagh. However there was no proof on the day of the massacre that there was a conspiracy or any form of rebellion. To conclude, the British actions at Amritsar were justified in the aftermath of world war one to an extent , the Indian confidence had risen and they started to unite which shows that they were heading towards nationalism which was a threat to the raj, the Amritsar riots had also made an influence of the actions of dyer on the day of the massacre as many European women and children were killed , this might of showed that the same was bound to happen in jalianwala bagh as many people were gathered together and some were also discussing and protesting against the Rowlett acts. However as it says in source 10, â€Å"it is not proven that any conspiracy had been formed to overthrow British power† suggesting that dyers actions were necessary as there was no proof on the day.

The conventions governing ministerial responsibility Essays

The conventions governing ministerial responsibility Essays The conventions governing ministerial responsibility Paper The conventions governing ministerial responsibility Paper Essay Topic: Law As we have learnt from out study of conventions, it would be very difficult to track down every convention relevant to ministerial responsibility, as they can be found from a variety of sources, some of which are unwritten. I shall be attempting to examine the most significant conventions, and examining their nature to determine exactly how effective they are. In particular, I shall look at the nature of convention itself to establish criteria on which we can judge the scope and adequacy of the conventions. I shall also examine incompetence and impropriety throughout ministerial departments and the civil service, because as we shall discover shortly, ministers are accountable for more than just their own actions. Conventions are the rules which regulate the day-to-day functioning of the legal constitution, described by some as the rules of constitutional morality. The most important conventions in the constitution are commonly regarded as those which either limit monarchical power or, as is applicable here, regulate the relationship between government and Parliament. The nature of convention is such that some may be well-established and clear, like that which ensures that Parliament meets at least once a year, whereas others are less clear and tend to cause controversy. For a convention to be properly established, it needs to be accepted by those whom it affects. However, a convention is not directly enforceable by law, which is where matters of inadequacy play a part, as we shall discover later on. Ministers are members or supporters of the party in power which holds political office, who often have departmental responsibilities for which they are politically responsible to Parliament as individuals. Ministers are thus responsible for their own actions, a concept known as individual responsibility, and are accountable for the actions of their department, and I shall discuss the distinction between the two later on. Ministerial responsibility has been the accepted basis of parliamentary government in Britain since the mid-19th century, along with particular development in the other main aspect of ministerial responsibility collective responsibility. This is the idea that ministers must hold a united front once a cabinet decision has been made, having been given the chance to dissent or resign when the decision itself was being made. It is necessary to outline some of the governmental conventions used regarding ministerial responsibility. The Ministerial Code created in 1945 is the primary source for most of these conventions, which were revised and reissued by Blair in 1997. The principles of ministerial conduct stated in this code include a duty to uphold collective responsibility and a requirement for ministers to account for the activities of their department/agency. More specifically, the code also states that, ministers who knowingly mislead Parliament will be expected to offer their resignation to the Prime Minister, and the word knowingly is of particular significance. Ministers have a duty to be as open as possible with Parliament and the public, refusing information only when disclosure would not be in the public interest. A minister must behave according to the highest standards of constitutional and personal conduct in the performance of their duties. The Carltona Principle also states that if a decision is made on behalf of one of his officials, then that constitutionally is the ministers decision. It is also a duty of a minister to send civil servants under him to select committees for questioning, if they are called upon. However, in most cases, civil servants are not responsible for their actions and decisions, unless powers have been formally delegated from a minister. Despite the apparently clear nature of these conventions, the system of ministerial responsibility has been shown by many to be an insufficient means of scrutinising government, and ways of breaking these conventions, or amending them to suit circumstances have exposed their uncertainty and inadequacy. If we examine some of the conventions that I listed, we can show how each of them has failed in their duty to govern ministerial responsibility. I outlined that ministers have a duty to account for their departments, but there is a growing accountability gap which is allowing ministers to distance themselves from the traditional full accountability for their department. Prison difficulties in 1995 exposed this issue, when the chief executive of the Prison Service was dismissed following review of prison security, which showed problems traceable to the prison service headquarters. The Home Secretary, Michael Howard denied that any policy of his caused the problems, and refused to take responsibility for his agencys failures. The fact that a minister actually has the freedom to do this exposes the clear inadequacy of the convention in safeguarding against ministerial impropriety, which saw a member of the civil service take responsibility for the issue without much political tumult from the rest of the government. Even if Howard wasnt at fault, the convention has no means of testing or ensuring that, nor of actively stopping a minister from relinquishing responsibility for a departmental error. The Scott Report 1996 is full of examples of ministers deliberately holding back information, refusing to answer questions and providing inadequate responses to questions. The whole arms to Iraq issue exposed problems within the conventions of ministerial responsibility, particularly in defining who was accountable, and in extracting necessary information from officials. It can be argued that those ministers who did not account for their actions for reasons of commercial confidentiality, or in the public interest, were not fulfilling their ministerial duty, particularly in knowingly misleading Parliament. Scott specifically stated that British Governments act as though they are the state, and regularly confuse the public interest with their own governmental convenience. Even though the government narrowly avoided being implicated for a cover-up by surviving a parliamentary debate by one vote, convention was shown to insufficiently prevent ministerial misconduct. I find that the usage of the confidentiality excuse was particularly barren, as it contradicted UK policy to publish details of certain arms exports in the UN Arms Register, itself an initiative of John Major. As Lewis and Longley identify, there was no reason why the ministers could not have at least provided details regarding the nature and quantity of arms involved, even if commercial confidentiality had to be maintained. In general, conventions regarding avoidance of answering questions are completely deficient in preventing the avoidance of politically fragile issues out of convenience. The democratic process is totally undermined by the inability to scrutinise government, and prevent such indirectness. Another issue brought up by the report was the prevention of the select committee from questioning key civil servants who had retired. These civil servants would have provided valuable information to the inquiry, but convention held that they could not be questioned. Inadequate safeguarding against ministerial errors is yet again exposed, as this convention acts as yet another means of shielding ministers (and departments) from taking responsibility for their actions. On the whole, the Scott Report exposed a general assumption of executive dominance over Parliament, prioritising government policy over law, and depicting the conventions as open to discretion and highly ambiguous. It is outlined in convention that ministers should maintain the highest standards of constitutional and personal conduct, yet the nature of ministerial responsibility has been shown to be such that the upholding of this convention is also unnecessary. The government almost always backs any minister that is facing an enquiry, using its majority in the House of Commons, if opposition attempts to table a motion of censure to try and employ some means of governmental scrutiny. Thus another convention is shown to be empty and easy to bypass by government shielding of its own. I have discussed the inadequacy of these conventions in some depth, but further examination of the uncertainty of the scope of some of these conventions is also required. I outlined a duty to uphold collective responsibility. However, from examples such as dissent regarding implementation of a 10% tariff in the economic crisis of 1932, and the unwillingness to continue membership of the European Communities in 1974, an alternative option was given to ministers whereby it was not necessary for ministers to resign, known as agreement to differ. In the first example, the option for completely open dissent was given, but in the second example, only dissent outside of Parliament was permitted. It appears from these examples that departure from convention governing ministerial responsibility is permissible when it suits the Cabinet, undermining the nature of the convention itself. Also, as outward cabinet unity (regarded by many as the main reason for collective responsibility) has been sacrificed in any case by allowing open dissent, why should different levels of outward dissent be permitted in different circumstances? The scope of convention is shown to be uncertain here, as well as the extent to which the convention should apply, and when agreement to differ, should be permitted. The whole responsibility vs. ccountability debate shows further uncertainty as to how far convention actually applies. Theoretically, a minister is accountable for all that happens in his department, but my example of the Home Secretary in 1995 showed weakness in this convention. The real problems arise when there is genuine uncertainty as to who is responsible for a policy. The uncertain nature of this convention allows a minister to avoid taking responsibility for a decision made in his department, but similarly, a civil servant can also avoid this responsibility, as he isnt expected to know enough to make sufficiently educated decisions. There is also continuing debate regarding how far a minister is responsible for maladministration of power if a civil servant below him makes a mistake, and the circumstances in which a minister should have to resign. Clearly convention does not hold the answer to these questions, as the answers depend on the political atmosphere in which the issue has occurred, so convention can be shown to be uncertain in providing safeguards against relinquishment of ministerial responsibilities. I have based my argument on criticism of the conventions governing ministerial responsibility. However, there are aspects of convention which could be called creditable, and show why the system of convention has lasted so long. One good thing about this system is that it has allowed power to theoretically remain in the hands of the electorate, so that ministers can share out policy-making and administrative authority, rather than having it concentrated in the hands of the monarch. This in turn makes it relatively easier to scrutinise these spread powers. Although the idea of absolute control of political behaviour through collective responsibility is debatably a dangerous idea, it also has positive aspects in showing the party to be uniform in policy and ideas, working together for the good of the people, and also helps to contain public disagreement between departments, which would otherwise present the view of a dysfunctional government. Also, when I discussed the nature of agreement to differ, although my point was that it contravened convention, I do believe that the actual concept itself is positive, and should be more clearly incorporated into the convention itself. I have emphasised throughout the essay that the civil service are able to avoid taking responsibility for many of their actions, but ministers do have the power to dismiss civil servants for maladministration or other major errors, so they are not completely free from responsibility. The courts can also get involved in issues of ministerial responsibility where necessary, although their power is limited to compensation and other similar judgements, rather than amendments to problems cemented by the nature of ministerial responsibility. I must also stress that in criticising the conventions governing ministerial responsibility, I am not necessarily discrediting the convention system as a whole; rather I am identifying that the current conventions that we have are vague, uncertain and inadequate at preventing ministerial incompetence and impropriety. It must still be noted that conventions remain an effective way of keeping the constitution up to date regarding contemporary political values. I also commented on how convention is not actually legally enforceable. However, as Dicey argues, breaking of many conventions can in fact still lead to involvement of the courts, as convention and law in our constitution are so intertwined that breaking one will very often require breaking of the other. In a survey, Mancuso stated that whatever is not expressly forbidden is tacitly permitted. In this summary of the nature of convention, Mancuso highlights what I think is the main problem with our current conventions governing ministerial responsibility. The conventions are too vague and open to interpretation, and as a result, it is impossible for the convention system to effectively scrutinise government. Clearer definitions need to be made of the conventions, possibly using legislation as well, so that proper safeguards against ministerial (and departmental) incompetence and impropriety can be imposed. Once these conventions are amended, it will be much easier to make specific changes to the administration, such as creating a policy register so that blame and responsibility can be effectively administered, and changing circumstances in which ministers can avoid answering questions when subject to select committee review.

The PSAT Score Range (Updated for New 2015 PSAT)

The PSAT Score Range (Updated for New 2015 PSAT) SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips College Board is mixing things up. With the new suite of assessments starting to roll out this fall, the new PSAT is one of the first tests to debut. Apart from changes in content and structure, the new PSAT will use a different scoring system than the one used in previous years. This new scale will correspond with, though not match exactly, the scale for the new SAT. This article will go over the new PSAT score range, along with explaining what your PSAT scores will mean for National Merit and your performance on the SAT. Let's check out the new scoring system. What's the New PSAT Score Range? Gone is the old PSAT score range of 60 to 240. The new PSAT will be scored on a scale from 320 to 1520. Math will actually count for one half of this composite score, and the Reading and Writing (which will be called Writing and Language) sections will count for the other half together.You'll get subscores for Math, Reading, and Writing and Language between 8 and 38. Then Reading and Writing will be considered together, and Math will make up for the other half. To get your Math scaled score, you simply multiply your section score by 20. A score of 30 on math, for instance, would convert to a scaled score of 600 (30 x 20 = 600). To get your Reading and Writing score, which again are combined, you add each section score and multiply by 10. Let's say you get a 32 on Reading and a 35 on Writing. Your scaled score would come out to 670 (e.g., (32 + 35) * 10 = 670). Here's another example, where the student scored a 28 on Reading, 32 on Writing, and 34 on Math. Test Test Score Section Score Total Score Reading 28 (28 + 32) * 10 = 600 600 + 680 = 1280 Writing and Language 32 Math 34 34 * 20 = 680 For each section, you could get a minimum scaled score of 160 and a maximum of 760. Your PSAT score report will further break down your performance by question type so you have a detailed sense of how you did. The verbal sections will show additional scoring between 1 and 15. Another major change is that the new PSAT will have rights-only scoring. You won't get any point deductions for wrong answers. Instead, your raw score will be added up one point at a time for each correct answer. Why Do PSAT Scores Matter? Your PSAT scores are important for a few reasons. One, as a measure of your college readiness, they give you a sense of your academic strengths and weaknesses and the skills you need to focus on to get ready for college. In a more immediate sense, they help predict how you'll do on the very important SAT. The new SAT will be scored between 800 and 1600. The PSAT scale is shifted slightly lower to account for the fact that it's a slightly easier test than the SAT. While a 1520 on the PSAT doesn't necessarily equate to a 1600 on the SAT, it still suggests you'll get a very strong score. If you're scoring lower than you'd like, you can use your score report to figure out how to prep to improve on the SAT. Apart from helping you predict and get ready for the SAT, your PSAT score is important for National Merit distinction and scholarships. Since National Merit looks at scorers in top percentiles, it's important to know your percentiles, along with your scores. Your percentiles compare you to other students who took the PSAT, so you can know how competitive your scores are. You'll actually get a few different percentile measures on your score reports, which I'll explain below. How Do PSAT Score Percentiles Work? Your scores will be assigned a percentile, which compares them to the scores of other test-takers. If you score in the 75th percentile, for instance, then you scored the same as or higher than 75% of other test-takers. The other 25% scored higher than you. You'll actually see three types of percentiles, the Nationally Representative Sample percentile, the User percentile, and the National Merit Scholarship Corporation percentile. The first compares all the other U.S. students in your grade, while the second compares a sample derived from a research study. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) percentile is the important one for National Merit. NMSC uses its own percentile to compare students by state who participated in the same PSAT administration.Read more about National Merit here. Preparing for the PSAT As you can see in the chart above, scoring in the top 1% requires a high score with very few wrong answers in each section. The highest scorers on the PSAT usually take months to a year or more before the test to study with official PSAT practice tests and questions. Older PSAT practice tests are also very helpful, as are practice tests for the new SAT, since the two tests will be very similar. You can use these practice tests to figure out what subjects and question types you need to study most, as well as to time yourself and practice answering questions quickly and efficiently under time limits. One of the best ways to learn and improve is to write down any mistakes or questions you're unsure about. Then take the time to thoroughly review the answer explanations, and drill the same concepts with similar practice questions. That way you can break patterns and answer the same question types correctly the next time. Some students also choose to take the PSAT earlier, like in 9th or 10th grade to gain valuable test-taking experience. Additionally, College Board now offers the PSAT 8/9 and the PSAT 10 for eighth graders, freshmen, and sophomores to gain experience with these tests. Finally, once you do take the PSAT, make sure to check your scores right away. Then you can see if you made it into the top 1% and need to start on your National Merit application. Either way, you can learn what you need to study to further improve your scores on the SAT. What's Next? Are you a sophomore wondering if you should take the PSAT 10 or the PSAT NMSQT? Read all about the differences and how to decide here. If you are taking the PSAT NMSQT as a sophomore, check out what makes a good score for sophomores here. When are you planning to start studying for the SAT? This article helps you figure out your study schedule, as well as gives suggestions for how many hours you need to prep to see certain score improvements. Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Spiritual Heritage of the Knights Templar Essay

The Spiritual Heritage of the Knights Templar - Essay Example The spiritual realization that we keep in ourselves is often mediated through strong religious personalities likes Buddha, Jesus, Moses or Mohammad. The awareness that he have about these religious leaders shapes our cultural beliefs. The true spiritual heritage, though, is not contained only in the books, history, monuments of stone or culture, but also in the love and sympathy we share for each other. The Brotherhood of the Knights Templars was precisely a self-conscious group of people who attained spiritual immortality through their great human expressions and protections of the heritage. Their story is so powerful that transformed their order into admirable human temple. The order of the Knights Templar is surrounded by mysteries and legendary stories. The religious crusades in the Middle Ages caused turmoil among the successors to the throne in Europeans countries and created a battlefield of faith too. The order is synonymous with the crusades of the Middle Ages and the emerge nce of the Religious knights. What most people remember about the Knights Templar are not their achievements and accomplishments but their tragic decline on Friday the 13th, in October 1307. The Knights Templars were a military order which was established to defend Christian pilgrims in Jerusalem in 1118. Two decades after the victory of the First Crusade which took place between 1095 and 1099 a group of knights commanded by Hugues de Payens proposed the Patriarch of Jerusalem to serve as a military force (Dafoe 2009). The original group was said to consist of nine people who had to protect Christian pilgrims who were travelling to the Holy Land to visit the temples sacred to their faith. Between 1118 and 1120 King Baldwin II granted the military formation quarters in a wing of the Royal Palace on the Temple Mount (Dafoe 2009). This place was among the holy structures which were presented by the priests of Jerusalem as the Temple of Solomon. "The Poor fellow-soldiers of Jesus Christ" became "The Knights as the Temple of Solomon" and subsequently known as the Knights Templars. Cistercian abbot was the first greatest contributor, who in 1127 issued rules and promoted the Templars. By rule, the Templars were not allowed to own properties personally, however this restriction did not apply to the Order as whole. So, those who were not able to participate in the order gifted land and other valuables as a sign of respect and honor to the group. Over the decades the Templars converted their humble start into the wealthiest of the Crusading Orders. Eventually, they gained the favour of the Church and the majority of the European monarchs (Dafoe 2009). Although the Templars were considered as the most powerful medieval military force the warrior-monks faced their tragic demise in 1307 when King Philip IV of France had the knights arrested and their assets seized. This controversial and unexpected destruction of the order ensured that the history of the Templars would be enveloped in mythical speculations. The legendary group was said to be arrested under the motiva tion of blasphemy, heresy, and sodomy (Dafoe 2009). Jacques de Molay - the Grand Master of the Knights Templar, and 60 of his senior knights were captured in Paris. After recanting the confession he made while being tortured, Jacques de Molay was burned at the stake in 1314. Generally, historians agree that the primary motivation of King Philip was greed rather than the genuine belief that the Templars were corrupt. Recent rediscovered Vatican archives showed that the Templars were innocent of the charges they were accused (Dafoe 2009). Over the centuries, the mystique around

Student Action Plan LSL Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Student Action Plan LSL - Assignment Example For example if we waste the clean supply of water now and continue to pollute the remaining by industrial waste, we are assured that the forthcoming generation will be forced to desalinate water. From my educational experience I seek to treasure the environment as the most precious gift that the creator ever awarded man as a source of resources. I also seek to enlighten others on the importance of utilizing our resources accordingly. It is also my obligation to inform others that sustainability is not only a matter of environmental maintenance but as a social responsibility of all and to ensure that they maintain ethical behaviors. It is with no doubt that based on my interest in this field I will be highly interested in advancing in this field of professionalism. In order to ensure that I play a productive role in ensuring the sustainability of the environment, I must be socially responsible. To ensure that we have reliable soil, I seek to enlighten others on the importance of not dumping untreated chemical waste. To save water, I will minimize waste of water and ensuring that I tell others on the same. Finally when it comes to minimizing wastage of resources, I seek to educate others on the importance or recycling and reusing material so as to outdoor reduce the stress on the need for new ones. I must make a difference on this planet because it houses my present and my future, together with that of others too. It is therefore my responsibility to ensure the existence of both the present and the future. In this light, below I present my sustainability plan: Back in the house, I seek to completely change the lighting system to use energy saving bulbs. In addition the source of electricity is to be changed from grid electricity to renewable energy sources such as solar panels. I also want to advocate for purchase of fully electric cars like the Tesla s. At the campus, I seek to audit their energy use, from which I will be able to assist them on how

Editing paper required Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Editing paper required - Essay Example The goal of the class is majorly teaching and developing basic swimming skills, strategies, and sportsmanship in all students. Therefore, the teachers focus on the students’ physical activity and encourage them to interact and cooperate with one another in their individual and group activities. Not every student has in born swimming skills. So the teachers make them perform such activities that inculcate good swimming skills in them. The students are taught how to raise their comfort level in the water, control breath, and how to keep safe in the water. These are all part of the primary skills. The teachers also tell the students how to use things that are the school property in the swimming pool and respect the rights of other students.It is good to know that in a very short period, most of the children have learned how to perform freestyle stroke, kick, and breathe perfectly, although they are too young to learn all that. They are too good at swimming for their age. The teac hers have done a great job. Their approach is rational and is systematically structured to facilitate planning the lessons, conducting them, and evaluating the students’ performance. The instructors customize the course to meet students’ needs, demonstrate the required skills at an acceptable level of performance, and develop a strategy to keep help the class achieve its goals. In order to develop students’ activity, the teachers carefully monitor their practice and provide instant feedback and encouragement. There are a couple of teaching methods that I would like to point out in the class. While the teachers were teaching the students in the swimming pool, I was surprised to see that no one was trying to get into the swimming lane and teach the swimming act correctly. Although it might be hard for the teachers to practically

Leadership Must Be Empowerment To Empower Its Teams Management Essay

Leadership Must Be Empowerment To Empower Its Teams Management Essay Goleman (1998) argued that during the last decade interpersonal skills have focused on effective leadership. Where the leaders controlled, planned and inspected the organizations operation, in recent more service oriented industries, leaderships responsibilities include motivate employees, promote positive attitudes in workplace, and make a sense of participation among employees (Hogan et al., 1994). Most researchers analyze leadership effectiveness regarding to the result of the leaders performance for employees and companys stakeholders, but the consequence variables of each researchers have been different from the others. The principals of these variables are depend on how immediate they are and whether they have subjective or objective measures. These consequences which are negatively correlated, are very difficult because of the complex trade-offs among them. In order to analyze the effectiveness of leadership many criteria should be taken in to the account to handle these complexities and variation between stakeholders preferences (Yuki, 1998). Researchers have stressed that the relationship between managers and employees has an important role in effective leadership. Qualified relationship and open interaction motivate and empower employees (Boyd and Taylor, 1998; Brower, Schoorman, and Tan, 2000). Drinks (1995) and Nonaka (1988) believed that the type of leaders interaction may lead them to take advantage from their difference and learn from each other. Ensley et al. (2003) argued that conventional view of a single leadership is based on the concept that leadership is a specialized role that cannot be shared with group. This perspective is stood for more hierarchical leadership in which the leaders supervise and control all activities. In the other hand, in shared leadership all members of the team are empowered to share the tasks and responsibilities of leadership. Yuki (1998, p.3) who view leadership as shared process cited that important decisions about what to do and how to do it are made through the use of an interac tive process that involves many different people who influence each other, not by a single person. Managers have different relationships with their employees and as Boyd and Taylor (1998) argued the quality of these relations may have influence on their success. When they improve the quality of their relationship, employees can be more productive on their task and more encouraged to contribute in organizational activities. Argyris and Schon (1978, 1996) have claimed that supportive interaction is the basis of effective leadership. Such interaction can be a strong motivation for organizational learning (Drinks, 1995; Nonakd, 1998). Bandura (1974) emphasized that successful leaders have capacity to motivate, encourage and empower their employees. Empowerment improves employees task innovation and continuation. Empowered employees make more contributions, they accept more difficult situations, and perform more confidently. They make more effort on their given task. According to Hofstede (2001) in organizations, such as any other social units, it may be found some inequality of employees capacities and powers, or unequal distribution of power over the employees. Cotta (1976) believes that power inequality is necessary in organization, and Hofstede (2001) claimed that the distribution of power in most organizations is formed in hierarchies, and the foundation of these hierarchies is the relationship between the managers and employees. Power distance is a measure of the interpersonal power or influence (P.83) between managers and employees. The acceptance and supporting of power distance by social environment is strongly related to the national culture. The culture determines the level of correlation among managers and employees. He expressed that the effect of employees participation on the outcome variables of organizational contribution, job satisfaction and efficacy was altered by particular level of power distance. Employee empowerment or participative decision making is not a simple or new concept of management. More than 50 years of research has approved that employee contribution is a complex management tool, that if apply properly, it can improve the performance, productivity and job satisfaction (Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Cohen, Chang and Ledford (1997) argued that employee must be engaged if they comprehend the necessity of creativity and if they are interested in changing their behaviors in work in improved way. He believes that the most significant concept of organizational effectiveness and positive employee perceptions is the employees involvement. One type of employees involvement in workplace is their participation in decision making (PDM). Nykodym, Simonetti and Welling (1994) have presented four areas for employees participation. The first area is goal setting. Employees can participate in setting up a goal for their task, planning a job and the appropriate time for job execution. In the second area employees can contribute in making choice between alternative series of tasks such as: working hours, placement of supplies or options among alternatives to perform an ordinary task. Next, employees can participate in problems solving that include clarifying the subject and determining the alternative series of activities. Finally, participation may include organizational changes, such as setting company policies that may involve hiring, layoffs, profit sharing or investments. Companies can take part in any or all of these areas in any time. The first three methods of participation can be used for all areas of contribution. Employees can participate individually to make decision and determine their own target, or they may get together with a manager to make decision making team. All employees may take part in decision making group with their coworkers or managers. This participation may be formal as in quality circle or informal as a group of employees declaring their opinions to gain the general agreement. Employees contribution in decision making can be directly or indirectly through a representative elected to express the groups ideas. There are some conditions that influence the success of participative leadership, and if these conditions do not manage properly, the efforts for participative management will fail. One of the most important set of these conditions is include the values, attitudes and expectations of an organizations employees. If employees do not want to take part in decision making, any attempt to force them would fail. For successful participation an organization must have a corporate culture that express the participative leadership. Another condition is the design of current task that must be done. If the workers task depends on each other to be complete, it can encourage the independent individual participation. If employees do not trust their managers, the participation in group decision making of employees and managers may not be successful. The last set of conditions is related to the environment. According to the rapidly changing technology, governmental laws, and strong competition, employ ees participation in decision making cannot be effective unless the members have the essential technical skills. These groups must also be capable to work with each other effectively in order to make a proper decision (Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Yuki (1998) believes that shared leadership is expected to occur self-managed teams, because of the employees are independent in developing group processes. In self-managed teams employees have more authority and responsibility to make decisions which related to their tasks (Katzenbach Smith, 1993; S.G Cohen, 1991). Self-managed teams are able to make decisions, determine goals, assign work, set schedule, and so on (Yuki, 1998). However the necessity of leadership in not questioning as the team is self-managed. Barry (1991) stressed that the role of leadership in self-managed teams is more important than traditional teams. He declared that in addition to needing task-based leadership such as project definition, scheduling, and resource gathering; self-managed teams require leadership around group development processes (developing cohesiveness, establishing effective communication patterns, and so forth) (p.32). Braford (1976) suggested that the teams members with shared leadership a re more satisfied with their teams, and Katzenbach and Smith (1993) claimed that teams involved in shared leadership are more effective and productive in regard to performance. In addition Perry, Pearce and Sims (1999) argued that shared leadership improves the interpretation of teams requirements. Recently many researchers have become interested in the concept of self-managed group (Stewart and Manz,1995; Cohen and Ledford, 1994; Mohrman et al., 1995; Manz, 1986, 1992; Manz and Sims, 1980,1990). According to the idea of socio-technical systems developed by Emery and Trist (1969), during the recent years, the self-managed work groups are used as a form of work system, specifically as pressures of high educated workforce for more responsibility and empowerment through group based shared management are exerted on organizations (Pearce and Manz, 2005). Also, there is another pressure that applied for organization to become more responsive to the recent competitive environment and global economy (Wriston, 1991; Druskat and Wheeler, 2003). Self-managed teams are independent to make important decision that related to their team processes (Katzenbach Smith, 1993; S.G. Cohen, 1991; Yuki, 1998). Murry et al. (2002) emphasized that leadership is a key in team process, without leadership team members may not be able to identify with team goals. Self-managed teams as Barry (1991) argued need more leadership than traditional teams in both task-related and team development problems. There are some attributes for self-managed work teams. Under the Wall and Clegg (1986) presentation, self-managed team build of a small group of individuals who are responsible for making the unit of task, executing a variety of works and using various skills that the group possesses. Job feedback is important for work team so the difference from goal achievement can be supervised by group member in specified task area boundary. Several case studies proved the advantages of the implementation of self-managed work teams such as increased employee satisfaction, heightened socialization in the work place, increased autonomy, opportunity to learn new skills, and some other benefits include reduced absenteeism and increased performance and motivation (Cohen and Ledford, 1994; Wall and Clegg, 1986; Pearce and Ravlin, 1987). However some researchers believes that self-managed work teams have some disadvantages in actual work (Versepey, 1990; Mohrman et al., 1995). Some case study in the USA has demonstrated that one of the most important factors in self-managed work teams failure is the reluctance of the manager to transfer the power and control to the team member (Hackman, 1989; Manz and Sims, 1987). So the role of leadership in self-managed work teams is critical. Elloy (n.d.) argued that the leadership in self-managed work team has an important role that has received little attention during past years for they often they supposed that role of external leader is redundant. There are few researches on external leader and its influence on groups operations. The fundamental opinion of self-managed work teams declares that the group members have control over their work environment and responsibility for all their duties in the team. However, research by Manz and Sims (1984, 1986, 1987, and 1990) revealed that leadership exit from traditional form of supervision and control to highly facilitative form of management, less direct but necessary for the productivity and effectiveness of the group. Many authors cited Kanter (1979) as the source of knowledge about the efficacy of employee empowerment. Kanter (1979) believes that shared management and empowered employee can increase the organizational power. The power of the leader in such situation not only reduces but also may enhance especially if the organization performs better. He also mentioned that employees, who are equipped with tools, information, and support, can make better decision. Bowen and Lawler (1995) declared that empowerment lead to more satisfied customers and employees. They also provided additional evidence, considerable research unpracticed such as gain sharing, communication programs, work teams, job enrichment, skill based pay, and so on, has shown the results of these practices are consistence and positive (p.75). Randolph (1995) indicates that employee empowerment can is improved trust in the organization. In such organization employee respond positively and they will set challenging goals which when they achieve those goals they will define the goals at higher level. In the other hand managing participation does not come without potential problems in the case of initiation, structure and management, choice of issue, team work, and evaluation. When organizations begin the participation program, the managements who are at higher level direct employees to contribute in establishing task forces and teams. In addition, managers who are handled to accomplish this activity will be assessed on the success of their teams. Another problem of participation is how the organization declares the program to the employees. Managers sometime present contribution in decision-making as a luxury rather than a result oriented tool. Furthermore, if management explains clearly what they want to obtain from concept of participation, employees can accept it more rapidly. The next problem is concern with employees who are involved in participation practices. If participation depends on volunteers, it is not representative, if it does not; it is compelling (Nykodym, Simone tti, Nielsen and Welling, 1994). Fox (1998) believes the most important problem in empowerment program as that may affect profitability of the organization is managements fear of letting employees make decisions. Even Kanter (1979) who is cited as providing evidence of the effectiveness of empowerment indicates: One might wonder why more organizations do not adopt such empowering strategies. These are standard answers, that giving up control is threatening to people who have fought for every shred of it; that managers fear losing their own place and special privileges in the system, and so on forth. But I would also pot skepticism about employee abilities high on the list. (p.74) In addition, Nykodym et al. (1994) mentioned that some problems in participations are related to the structure and management. An effective empowerment needs an obvious structure. It is essential to establish all basis rules and limitation boundaries from the beginning of the program. In the other word, empowerment program requires an effective leader who can motivate the employee and set constraints. Another problem with structure and management is that managers must engage to arrange activities, support employees and reconsider the consequences. A manager cannot assign the tasks to a team without monitoring them. They must also find and manage the time needed for participation. Middle managers often oppose to employee empowerment as they think that the program will remove their power, which Blanchard and Bowles (1998) called it hazing theory of management. He believes that managers must modify the control over the employees. The reason that initiation programs and hazing are still a part of fraternal companies is that the employees want the chance to act as was acted to them. These changes are performed through training. Managers must understand that they still have a position even the authority being shared with employees. Their new role includes mentoring, coaching, and facilitating. Proper training improves managers skill of coaching and mentoring, because empower employee are often leaded in to self-managing teams need someone to facilitate their discussion until their skills are improved. This facilitating is the role of manager in self-managed team. Many managers need training in order to increase their capacity for facilitating discussions (Fox, 1998 ). Next dilemma that Nykodym, Simonetti, Nielsen and Welling (1994) referred is the issue of choice that is concerned which issue is included in participative decision making. Researchers have demonstrated that employees prefer to take part in problems that are related to their primary job operation, or their quotidian problems. But it is important not to make presumption about what problems are most significant to employees, they should be asked. As the participation has passed its experimental stage, employees may request compensation or recognition for their time and ideas. Employees must feel that they profit from participation in the effectiveness of the company. Bowen and Lawler (1992) note some management objections such as: higher required investment in selection and training, greater labor costs, incompatible service deliveries which are resulted by these changes. Other management objections mentioned by Conger and Kanungo (1988) are empowerment may lead to overconfidence and misjudgment on the followers. Appropriate training may defeat some of these objections, but not all of them. However, Fox (1998) believes that the advantage of employee empowerment exceed the disadvantages. In the other hand, employees are often opposed to empowerment program. Aeppel (1997) argued that one of the objections by Eaton employees is the responsibility of the group for each employee. He believes that when everyone mentoring everyone else it seems that having a hundred bosses. Another employee complaint that declared by Fox (1998), is that they dont want extra task than their ordinary responsibilities. He considers that employee with such objection is not motivated and he/she is not aware of the benefit of his/her task for the organization. Eurotec Company is a subsidiary of the Schott Group which is a large German glass manufacturer. According to the rapid production expansion, the company faced a number of problems, and in order to moderate these issues, the company decided to implement empowerment program. The references revealed the successful use of empowered autonomous work team to remove the problems (Sykes et al., 1997). As argued in the article, the staffs are now motivated to come along with challenges. Employees are trained to increase their technical and communication skills and they feel more involved. In conclusion, although the implementation empowerment is the biggest challenge of any organization in terms of its initiation, structure, and evaluation and so on, it is profitable for team progress, because there are more leaders to mentor teams performance, and employees motivate each other. In such environment employees are more satisfied about their job and as a result the productivity, performance and task innovation will be improved. For achieving these goals, managers have a key role to lead the organizations effectively and motivate employees to participate in decision making.